Teacher Introduction and Study Guide
The Setting
The Macartney mission of 1792–94 is a defining
episode in the modern encounter between China and the West. It is the first major event in
which British diplomats well read in the ideas of the European Enlightenment came face to
face with the leadership of the world’s greatest and most populous land power. Before
that time, educated Europeans had learned about China mainly through the writings of
French Catholic missionaries. Eighteenth-century European philosophers, with the notable
exception of Montesquieu, had rather liked what they perceived as the rationality and
beneficence of Chinese Imperial government. In addition, a taste for Chinese art developed
among the European aristocracy. Whole rooms in eighteenth-century European palaces and
aristocratic estates were given over to chinoiserie. But this was contact at a distance.
Outside of Russo-Chinese relations, no major diplomatic or political decision making had
as yet been involved.
The Qing
(Ch’ing) dynasty rulers, for their part, had developed an interest in the products of
Western culture. The Qianlong (Ch’ienlung) emperor in particular took a fancy to
European art and culture. During his long reign (1736–96) Italian artists produced
scrolls and paintings depicting court life and ceremonies and trained Chinese court
artists to paint using Western-style perspective. Numerous watches, clocks, and scientific
utensils with Western art motifs made their way into the Court furnishings. The most
notable access of Western style came with the construction of the old Summer Palace
outside of Peking, which reproduced motifs from Versailles on Qing Imperial soil. In
addition, several European missionaries resided in Beijing and were available to advise
the Emperor on European matters.
But the Qing Court did not normally permit any
concession to Western tastes in how it conducted its ritual ceremonies. These ceremonies,
carried out in formal settings with casts of hundreds or thousands, represented the
Emperor as Son of Heaven or as Chief Ruler, mediating with supranatural or terrestrial
powers to maintain cosmic and political harmony, through a process that the texts refer to
as ‘centering.’ |
Lord George Macartney |
The Emperor himself had to carry out ceremonies
mediating with superior authority, such as Heaven, or his forbears, or even his living
elders. For example, the Qianlong Emperor was exceedingly devoted to his mother and went
to extraordinary lengths to exhibit his filiality. His Chinese subordinates carried out
comparable rituals within their spheres of jurisdiction.
For Qing Manchu rulers, this ceremonial role was
particularly important to establish their legitimacy with the Confucian bureaucracy as
holders of Heaven’s mandate. This was how 2–3 million Manchus were able to
legitimize control over a population that grew to as much as a hundred times that size. In
addition, as rulers who had extended their power over non-ethnic Chinese domains of
southeast and inner Asia, the Qing rulers functioned as Buddhist redemptive sovereigns and
intercessors, responsible for bringing peace to huge regions beyond the traditional
Chinese domain. In this function the Qing rulers followed the Tibetan way of Buddhism, and
they served as patron-protectors of the Dalai Lama in Tibet. The Qianlong emperor studied
Tibetan and Sanskrit with a Mongolian representative of the Tibetan Yellow (Gelugpa) sect
and was depicted in Tibetan sanctuaries as a universal Buddhist peacemaker.
Detail from the inaugural
portrait
of Qianlong, Qing Dynasty
Handscroll.
Dated 1736.
Cleveland Museum |
The Qing
emperors developed a large imperial domain at Rehe (Jehol), 200 kilometers north of
Beijing and replete with Tibetan Buddhist temples, which they could use to greet missions
from dependent rulers in their capacity as both Confucian and Buddhist sovereigns. As
recently as 1791 (a year before the Macartney mission set out for China), Qing armies
successfully defeated a Nepalese invasion of Tibet, once again demonstrating their power
over the vast, mountainous and desert regions of Inner Asia. The Qing rulers also
maintained a capital in Manchuria, where they could receive delegations from northeastern
dependencies.
When missions came from countries beyond the boundaries
of the Qing empire, they were expected to fit in with the Confucian ceremonial system by
which relations between the Qing emperor and lesser powers were formalised and Qing
dynastic power manifested. Thus the role of foreign officials requesting admission to the
Court was to come as representatives of lesser rulers seeking grace and favor from the
Confucianized overlord presiding over the Qing empire. Most missions were willing to take
on this stance, including a Dutch mission which followed on the heels of Macartney’s. |
On the British side, the Macartney mission came armed
with a series of goals appropriate to an industrializing nation that was rapidly
developing a world-wide trading system. As Adam Smith had pointed out, the British were a
nation of shopkeepers and traders, and trade was becoming the key to their access to power
and prosperity. In the 1790s the British government of Pitt and Dundas was busy
reconstructing the British mandate in India to reduce the political power of the East
India Company and create a less mercantile and more open trading system. Because trade
with China had become a significant factor in the development of British power in India,
they wanted to cut through the restrictions of the Canton trading system imposed by the
Qianlong government on European merchants in 1760 and negotiate a freer trade environment
with China as a whole. They also wanted to establish a direct liaison—along European
diplomatic lines—with the Qing Court. Because of his erudition, diplomatic
experience, and familiarity with British policy in India, Macartney was in principle an
ideal person to represent the British government on such a mission.
But beyond these goals, Macartney and his associates
came to China with perceptions about trade and national intercourse which were certain to
cause friction with their Chinese hosts. As heirs of Galileo, Newton, and Locke, and
contemporaries of the French Enlightenment philosophers, they regarded themselves as
representatives of a modern, rational and specifically scientific world outlook. Within
their lifetimes British technicians had developed chronometers needed to determine
longitude, which would greatly increase the power and profitability of British navigation.
They lived in a world in which Adam Smith had worked out the advantages of trade, James
Watt had harnessed the power of steam, and Captain Cook had explored vast reaches of the
Pacific Ocean. Buoyed by such developments, the Macartney mission came to China not just
to promote trade and diplomacy, but to assess China’s status as a rational order and
to collect data on matters of interest to scientific as well as political colleagues.
These latter goals were to some extent achieved, although not in a manner favorable to
China’s reputation in Europe.
Once in China Macartney proved—or appeared to the
Qing leadership to prove—unwilling to function within the parameters of Qing
"Guest" ritual for ordering relations between the supreme ruler and subordinate
dependencies. (The issue over the ‘kowtow’ or three kneelings and nine
prostrations is only one of various problems which surfaced.) This created a serious
challenge for the Empire’s ceremonial managers. Some of them recognized that
Macartney was educated, worldly-wise and well-equipped with gifts for the Emperor. Why
couldn’t he conform to the vital ceremonials by which peace and harmony were
maintained and dependent leaders brought into a fulfilling relationship with the Son of
Heaven and Chief Ruler? And how could his dissonant conduct be managed so that it did not
disrupt ceremonial order and cast doubt upon the efficacy of the Qing emperor?
This analysis, made possible by recent scholarship,
suggests that the problems of the Macartney mission were not determined so much by
restrictions in trade policy or by cross-cultural misunderstandings. Rather, they resulted
from increasingly divergent global interpretive and managerial systems: Imperial
Confucianism on the one hand with its theories about the Mandate of Heaven and their
exercise by Manchu rulers to attain dominion over China and surrounding regions; and
European Enlightenment ideas about law and rationality and their application by British
leaders to the reorganization of British power in India and Asia. The encounter is
undertaken by human beings who try hard to sort out what is going on. Indeed, few tried
harder than Qianlong and Macartney to find ways to achieve their differing objectives. But
the systems were, and to a certain extent still are, incompatible. Macartney was trying to
introduce to China peaceful changes in trade and diplomatic practice, while at the same
time assessing Qing capacity to resist enforced change. But the Manchu-controlled Chinese
state system had its own goals for the management and control of foreign power, which
Macartney’s mission intentionally sought to change. Thus Qianlong and his aides ended
up spending much of their time figuring out how to get Macartney and company out of China.
The Play
The play is written to illustrate, and give some human
dimension to, the problems set up by the Macartney mission. There were in fact many
players on both sides engaged in managing or interpreting what was going on. Our play
reduces the cast of characters to three on the British side and three on the Imperial
Chinese side, plus an interpreter, Reverend Li (Lee), a.k.a. Mr. Plum, who was living in
Rome. Other views are reflected in the four narrators, of whom numbers one and three
represent a sort of common man perspective, while two and four represent perceptions about
the broader issues. A historian has been added to paint in the background and provide
introductions to the scenes. Sir George Staunton, Macartney’s second in command, and
Zhengrui (Chengjuei)—the unfortunate official delegated to deal with
Macartney— are mildly satirized as reflecting perspectives that tended to miss larger
issues. Tom was the sharp-eyed kid who later became Britain’s first official
China-watcher. Heshen (Hoshen) was Qianlong’s favorite and all-powerful
minister till the Emperor’s death, after which he was quickly disgraced, divested of
his fabulous wealth, and forced to commit suicide.
Salem, N.H. High School cast for Qianlong
Meets Macartney
October 14, 2000. Photo courtesy of Wanli Hu. |
Quite a few of the lines are taken from accounts
written by some of the British participants, or from memorials and rescripts written on
the Chinese side. These are drawn from Peyrefitte’s study (see Resources). The
original text has been revised by Charles Seifert and students of the Salem, New
Hampshire, High School Drama Workshop to loosen up the dialogue and make it flow more
easily from character to character. The ninth and tenth grade students gave a performance
of this version at a Primary Source Conference on October 14, 2000. The idea is that this
version should now be accessible to any high school or university world history class
studying this era of world history and seeking an opportunity to dramatize it.
The play draws on Western stereotypes of the Chinese
and Chinese stereotypes of Westerners. These stereotypes need careful interpretation in
class discussion. It would be helpful if teachers had the opportunity to read in advance
from an applicable historical text, e.g. those by Waley-Cohen and Spence, to get a more
detailed picture of the historical context, and the functioning of such concepts as the
Mandate of Heaven and the so-called Tribute System. The stereotypes derive from
incompatibilities in visions of how the world is organized and world order maintained.
Such differences in vision still have to be negotiated today; part of successful
negotiation consists in understanding and working with them.
Thus one
useful classroom exercise would be to discuss whether this mission could have succeeded to
any degree with more imaginative or better informed leadership on both sides, or was it
doomed from the outset by circumstances beyond the control of the principals? What can we
learn about principles of negotiation by studying this famously abortive mission?
With regard to presentation, one obvious problem is
that there are no women specifically identified in the named parts. That is because there
were no women in the British mission and none among Chinese officialdom. One way to
finesse this problem is to have female students take on the narrator parts. Or one could
adopt the conventions of Zhejiang opera and have female students act all the named male
parts (leaving narration to male students). Or one could just not worry about gender
identity. |
Young Tom Staunton receives purse from
the indulgent Qianlong emperor.
Salem, N.H. High School, October 14, 2000.
Photo courtesy of Wanli Hu. |
Outcomes for Study
The Macartney mission presents a foretaste of a problem
with which Qing politicians and educated Chinese would have to wrestle throughout the
nineteenth and twentieth centuries. That problem is how to deal with the assertive global
system set in motion by the Western Enlightenment and expressed through trade,
development, war, colonialism, political and economic revolution, and more recently
through global institutions such as the UN, the World Trade Organization (WTO), the World
Bank, etc. Can China participate in this modern Western concept of an interactive,
multinational global society without losing its own rationale, on which it has depended
for three thousand or more years, of how to manage the human condition? The Opium Wars,
extraterritoriality, the Western missionary movement in China, China’s own
twentieth-century revolutions, the wars with Japan, the Korean War, etc., up to the return
of Hong Kong to Chinese jurisdiction and China’s decade-and-a-half-long application
to join the WTO, all represent aspects of this ongoing ideological struggle.
Questions for Study
What can we learn that will help us to interpret the
clash of ideas, ceremonials, and perceptions? Did the Macartney mission lead inevitably to
the Opium Wars? What would it have taken to generate different outcomes? What light does
the Macartney mission shed on the issues that stand between the West and China? How can we
best deal with those issues today, e.g. as they affect trade and development, human
rights, competition over strategic resources, and management of strategic problems? At a
more immediate and personal level, how can study of such issues help us to deal with
ethnic relations within our own communities?
Title: Qianlong Meets Macartney: Collision of
Two World Views
Grade Level: 9–12
Approximate Class Time: From one hour to ninety minutes
(play takes approx. twenty minutes to read).
Purpose: To illustrate in dramatic form the clash of
diplomatic objectives and ideological assumptions characterizing the Macartney mission and
its reception in China; to lay out the issues dividing the British and the Chinese, and to
assess their significance for future interaction between China and the West.
Curricula Contexts
• Introduction to course on modern Chinese
history.
• Unit in course on global history in the modern
era, which deals with the convergence of West and East and the ideas and goals shaping
their interaction.
• Unit in course on comparative politics or
culture, designed to compare differing political or cultural systems, e.g., Chinese
dynastic and revolutionary rule with the politics and culture of modern Western
nationalism.
Objectives
• Students will be able to explain the differing
political goals motivating the British and Chinese regimes and the ways in which these
differences influenced British-Chinese relations up to the First Opium War (1839–42).
• Students will be able to account for the long
reach of British land and sea power in the late eighteenth century and explain why this
worried China’s Manchu rulers. (Students will have the opportunity to distinguish
Britain’s failure in colonial America from its successes in Europe and India.)
• Students will be able to understand the broad
ideological differences separating the British and Chinese and explain why so many
problems were left unresolved by the Macartney mission.
• Looking back on the Macartney mission today,
students will be able to discuss to what extent differences manifested at that time
continue to influence China’s relations with the West (and vice versa).
Props for the Play
• At least 14 scripts. Those for the 12 roles
should be marked up in advance, so that each reader has a script with his part identified
with a highlighter. The 13th script should be for a stage manager who could identify each
scene; the 14th would be for the teacher-director.
• Basic costume to distinguish British from
Chinese parts.
• Large name tags for each role-player-reader, to
remind audience who is who.
• 8 x 11 cards with titles of each scene in big
print.
• Nicely decorated casket or box (containing
George III’s letter), for Macartney to present to Emperor.
Other Props
• Map of China (if possible, map of China during
Qing dynasty).
• Map of world for showing scope of Macartney
mission.
• If possible, slides, photographs or prints to
demonstrate visual disparities (resources for such visuals are listed in references
below).
Procedure for Carrying Out Lesson
(Procedure suggested here could be used as introductory
unit to modern Chinese history.)
• Start a discussion on Chinese dynastic rule.
What is a dynasty? How is China governed in the eighteenth century? Who are the Qing
rulers? How powerful are they (how could this be measured)? For example, if the Qing
armies could conduct successful military campaigns on the border with India, they must be
pretty competent at projecting power. Where else did they carry out far-reaching
campaigns? (e.g., in Inner Asia, leading to establishment during Qianlong’s reign of
Xinjiang—Chinese Turkestan—as a vast "new province"). What about
China’s economy? What were the major crops? How many people lived there in the late
eighteenth century? How wealthy was China under Qianlong?
• Switch to Britain. The same country which
couldn’t or wouldn’t defeat the American forces during 1776–83 is busily
extending its power in India and is able to send formal missions all the way to China.
What is driving British politics at the end of the eighteenth century? Why is
reorganization of British power in India so crucial to the decision to send the Macartney
mission to China? (It has something to do with tea!) How important is China to Britain and
British India at that time?
• Introduce play. There are 12 roles (plus
hangers-on roles as needed). The play is student-friendly. It should be fun to read, and
no one has to learn a part. However, a trial reading would be helpful, to encourage
readers to read with style and wit and project their voices and parts. Encourage readers
to scout around at home for basic costume ideas. Students who do not want to read in
public could be encouraged to take on one of the projects listed below.
• Act out play. (Be sure to move reading and
scenes along briskly, while not rushing so fast that no one can make out what is being
said.) If necessary, separate off British and Chinese roles into two groups, so as to
underline their divisions.
• Commentary on play and mission. What ideas does
the play convey? What are the preconceptions on both sides, and how do they get in the way
of the negotiations? Why are there (at least) two versions of Macartney’s encounter
with Qianlong? Why do many commentaries conclude that the Macartney mission failed? What
did it accomplish? What did the readers learn from their parts? How could they improve the
play?
• Wrap-up. (1) Typically, Western commentators
would say that at the end of the eighteenth century China is on the verge of decline while
Britain is on the way to defeating Napoleonic France, leading the world in
industrialization, and creating the Victorian Empire. How could such a small country with
so few people reach out around the other side of the globe and defeat the forces of the
mighty Qing empire? Why not, if that country is establishing a new style of imperialism
and has the military power to put it across? (2) Chinese commentators would point to the
corruption developing in Qing politics, the scourge of the opium trade (promoted by
Scottish and even some American traders), and the treacherous duplicity of the alien Qing
rulers. Discuss with students why there are such differing ways of interpreting the events
in China’s relations with the West following on from the Macartney mission. Discuss
also why these events (Macartney to Opium War) still play such a big part in defining
Chinese public attitudes towards the West.
Projects for Students
1. Create a chart of the Macartney voyage, with notes
on all the places that he and his ships visited en route to China.
2. Imagine you are Tom Staunton. Write down in your
diary observations of Chinese customs and practices that have caught your attention.
3. Become a ritual specialist. Make a list of some of
the rituals you engage in, within your family, school, other social settings (church,
athletics, public performances, etc.). Contrast what you see to be the critical rituals
advocated by Macartney with those governing Qing reception of dependent missions. How did
they differ in performance and objectives? What do you think ritual is intended to
accomplish? Why specifically is ritual so important to diplomacy?
4. Describe some of the sites the Macartney group
visited, including the Great Wall and the Forbidden City in Beijing, and the Grand Canal
down which they traveled on the way home. If you can find a description of the Qing
emperors’ summer quarters in Jehol (Rehe), describe that. Imagine yourself as an
eighteenth-century American visiting these places. (If that is too difficult, imagine
visiting them as yourself today.)
5. Put together a list of gifts to accompany the
Macartney mission. What would they bring to demonstrate British accomplishment? What would
you bring, if you had been sent to visit the Chinese emperor at the end of the eighteenth
century?
6. Prepare an outline of events which occurred between
the Macartney mission and the First Opium War (1839–42) affecting British-Chinese
relations. Why do you think the British ended up going to war with China? Why did the Qing
diplomats feel obliged to negotiate unequal treaties with the Western powers? What was
"unequal" about them?
7. Find out what you can about the Confucian concept of
the "Mandate of Heaven." How does Heaven (and the natural order) interact with
human society and government according to this theory? How does this interaction affect
the conduct of government in Imperial China as illustrated in this play? See if you can
figure out to what extent the Mandate of Heaven still influences government in China.
RESOURCES
Background Reading
Fairbank, John King and Merle Goldman. China: A
New History. Enlarged edition. Cambridge, Mass. Harvard: Belknap Press, 1998. Broad
study drawing on much recent scholarship. Fairbank devoted his life to increasing American
understanding and study of modern China. Goldman was a close associate of his and is an
expert on modern China’s intellectual history. The text has useful passages
introducing such concepts as Mandate of Heaven, tribute system, etc. The broad focus is on
the Qing dynasty and the twentieth century.
Smith, Richard J. Chinese Maps: Images of
‘All Under Heaven.’ New York: Oxford University Press, 1996. Fascinating,
nontechnical essay on the evolution of Chinese cartography. According to Smith, the
introduction of Western cartography by the Jesuits had little influence on Chinese
cartographic traditions, which continued to rely on Song dynasty depictions of the Chinese
imperium as the world surrounded by seas and islands (well illustrated, but some maps are
hard to read).
Sobel, Dava. Longitude: The True Story of a
Lone Genius Who Solved the Greatest Scientific Problem of His Time. London: Fourth
Estate, 1998. An easy read, it evokes the intense excitement conveyed by the scientific
discoveries going on in late eighteenth-century Britain and their impact on more mundane
matters such as trade and navigation.
Spence, Jonathan D. The Search for Modern
China. New York: Norton, 1990. Chapter 6, "China and the [Western]
Eighteenth-Century World," contains sections on "Aliens and Chinese Law"
and "Western Images of China" illustrating differences in perceptions and
expectations between the West and China in the late eighteenth-century of Western time and
the late Qianlong era of Chinese/Qing dynasty time. The author has written widely on the
Qing dynasty and modern China and is a leading authority in this field.
Wakeman, Frederic Jr. The Fall of Imperial
China. New York: The Free Press, 1975. Chapter 7, "The Western Intrusion,"
gives a clear and concise account of how trade developed between Britain and China and why
opium came to figure so prominently. Although this text is over twenty years old, Wakeman
is an excellent historian and leading China specialist; okay for high school juniors and
seniors.
Waley-Cohen, Joanna. The Sextants of
Beijing: Global Currents in Chinese History. New York: Norton, 1999. Useful
background information on Chinese cosmopolitanism. The chapter on "Foreign Goods and
Foreign Knowledge in the Eighteenth Century" provides background to the Macartney
Mission and includes a brief discussion of the mission.
THE MISSION
Bickers, Robert A., ed. Ritual and
Diplomacy: The Macartney Mission to China, 1792–1794. London: British
Association for Chinese Studies, 1993. Short essays by Chinese and Western authorities
giving background to the perceptions of the participants and reasons for problems that
arose as negotiators on both sides fumbled.
Bishop, Kevin. China’s Imperial Way:
Retracing an Historical Trade and Communications Route from Beijing to Hong Kong.
With additional text by Annabel Roberts. Hong Kong: Odyssey Publications, 1997. This is
the route that the Macartney mission took on its way out of China. This source contains
some useful information from journals of individuals on the Macartney mission plus 13
illustrations by mission artist William Alexander. Well illustrated and worth acquiring
for your school library.
Hevia, James L. Cherishing Men from Afar:
Qing Guest Ritual and the Macartney Mission of 1793. Durham, North Carolina: Duke
University Press, 1995. Sophisticated and broad-based study, drawing on recent historical
and theoretical studies and on Chinese as well as English primary sources. Particularly
valuable for its discussion of ritual as a means of diplomatic communication and the uses
to which it was put by the Qing regime. Too technical for high school purposes, but
teachers looking for new ways to interpret and teach about relations between China and the
West would find many useful ideas in this book.
Hevia, James L. "Sovereignty and Subject:
Constituting Relations of Power in Qing Guest Ritual," in Angela Zito and Tani E.
Barlow, Body, Subject and Power in China. Chicago: Universiity of Chicago Press,
1994. Short, useful, and not too technical summary of analysis in Hevia’s book (see
above) on differing views of the relationship and functions of sovereign and subject in
Qing Confucian and Western eighteenth-century diplomatic practice.
Peyrefitte, Alain. The Immobile Empire.
New York: Knopf, 1992. 630 pages. Detailed, substantially documented, but nontechnical
study of the Macartney mission by a retired French diplomat. Some great color
illustrations.
Imperial Sites and Rituals
Holdsworth, May and Caroline Courtault. The
Forbidden City: The Great Within. Hong Kong: Odyssey Publications, 1995. Distributed
in the U.S. by W. W. Norton. Excellently illustrated account of Ming and Qing court life.
Includes a chapter summarizing the Macartney mission. This would be a great acquisition
for a high school library.
Holdsworth, May. The Forbidden City.
New York: Oxford University Press, 1998. Describes the public and private worlds
inhabiting the famous imperial palace buildings in the center of Beijing. Modestly
illustrated compared to the previous entry, but a good source of information on imperial
life.
Imperial Resort at Chengde. Beijing:
Foreign Languages Press, 1998. Designed for tourists rather than students, but has some
good illustrations showing the influence of Tibetan Buddhism in the construction of some
of the buildings. (What is needed is a study of Chengde which describes some of the great
events, rituals, government practices, and hunts carried on at Chengde.) Qing emperors,
especially Qianlong, tried to project themselves as Buddhist enlightened sovereigns;
Chengde was a place where they could really play out this role.
The Summer Palace. Beijing: Foreign
Languages Press, 1997. Illustrations for tourists of the favorite retreat of the Empress
Dowager. The European-style Summer Palace which Macartney visited was destroyed by the
British and French in 1860. Only the ruins remain. The Empress Dowager built another one,
which was damaged by the great power army in 1900 but restored. The grounds are one of the
great beauty spots around Beijing.
De Verboden Stad/The Forbidden City.
Rotterdam: Museum Boymans-van Beuningen, 1990. Good illustrated exhibition catalog of the
formalities of Imperial life in and around Beijing. Introduction includes useful summaries
on such topics as "Ceremonial Audiences," "The Imperial Wedding
Ceremony," "Imperial Banquets," "Inspection and Hunting Trips,"
"Daily Life in the Palace," etc. There are also chapters on The Qing as a
Dynasty of Conquest, Emperorship in China, Court Painting, and Symbolic Motifs. A very
informative source.
Most sources are available in the Primary Source
Library at 125 Walnut St., Watertown, MA, 02472 and can be loaned out to library members.
JOHN R. WATT is the Director of
China Studies at Primary Source, and Associate in Research at the Fairbank Center for East
Asian Research at Harvard University.
DRAMATIS PERSONAE
English
Side
|
Chinese
Side
|
The Right Honorable George Lord
Macartney |
His Supreme Majesty, the Qianlong
Emperor |
Sir George Staunton |
Heshen (Chief Minister) |
Thomas Staunton, his son (aged 12) |
Zhengrui (Imperial Legate) |
Father Jacobus Li (Mr. Plum) |
|
First Narrator/Robert |
Third Narrator/Wang |
Second Narrator/William |
Fourth Narrator/Zhang |
Historian |
(see note at end
on pronunciation of names) |
PROLOGUE
Historian. Imagine a time when people in
Europe and America knew very little about China, except that it was the place to buy tea
and silk—and maybe sell a little opium. In the late eighteenth century the British
were already in India and buying more and more Chinese tea.
First Narrator. We Brits needed outlets to
sell our industrial manufactures. China would have been just right—except for the
antiquated trade system at Canton.
Third Narrator. What antiquated trade system?
Fourth Narrator. These Western barbarians
never get it right. We’ve had an empire going for 2,000 years.
Third Narrator. Most of the time it works
fine. We provide order and stability, and a center around which things can revolve.
Fourth Narrator. We’ve also got the
culture that makes it all worthwhile. The barbarians bring tribute, and that’s right,
since they need our culture to transform themselves.
Third Narrator. That’s the way it goes.
They bring their stuff, come here humbly, and we shape them up.
First Narrator. (Rolls his eyes) See what I
mean? It’s going to be hard to crack this nut. It’s like the irresistible force
and the immovable object. But, as you’ll see, we’re irresistible!
Third Narrator. Irresistible my foot.
Turtles’ eggs, if you ask me!
SCENE ONE: The Voyage Begins
Historian. It is 1792. Eager to promote trade,
and dissatisfied with the Canton trading system, the British Government appoints an
Embassy to negotiate with the Chinese sovereign. The Embassy seeks to open new ports for
trade, arrange for a place where British merchants can live year round, and establish a
permanent mission in Beijing, the Chinese Empire’s Northern Capital. The Embassy is
to be led by Lord Macartney.
Macartney. That’s me. (Harrumphs)
I’m the Ambassador. I speak Latin, Greek, French and Italian. If I may say so,
I’m very well read. I’ve traveled all over Europe, then I led a mission to
Russia. I’ve been governor general of the British West Indies and governor of Madras.
I survived a duel with a major general. I’m an Irish baron but married well and
expect to become an English Lord! (Dusts off clothing)
Second Narrator. Yes, your Lordship. We set
off in late September with three ships and almost 700 men. The Ambassador was accompanied
by his right-hand man, Sir George Leonard Staunton.
Staunton. (Clears throat) Ah, yes . . .
I’m a doctor of medicine and doctor of law, and a literary type, don’t you know.
I was in Grenada when his Lordship showed up. We met, and here I am, a sort of right-hand
man, I suppose. I wrote a book about our travels, which the great Hegel studied. (To
Narrators) Carry on.
First Narrator. Thank you, Sir George.
Second Narrator. Staunton was accompanied by
his twelve-year-old son, George Thomas. Everyone calls him Tom.
First Narrator. Tom served as his
Lordship’s page.
Tom. It’s a lot of fun going to China.
I’m learning Chinese on the trip from some really cool Chinese priests who have been
living in Italy and speak Latin. My father got them to come with us. My main teacher is
Mr. Plum, because his name is Li, meaning Plum. That’s him over there. (Points to
Mr. Li) He doesn’t speak English, so we talk in Latin. I’m learning to
write those weird characters. I’m keeping a journal of the trip and putting in all
the things the grown-ups don’t talk about.
Mr. Plum. (Aside) He’s a good boy. Very
clever. Much smarter than his dad.
Second Narrator. His Lordship and Sir George
spent the voyage reading up everything they could about China. When he was in Russia,
Macartney met a man who had worked on border problems with the Chinese. He said the
Chinese had a superiority complex. If you weren’t Chinese you were a barbarian.
Macartney. Right. Bratischev was pretty
uncomplimentary about those people. Said they were ignorant as hell. Quite right, too.
They don’t know a damn thing about England. Or science. Thought the earth was square
and China in the middle of it. Ye gods!
Staunton. But it was Montesquieu who got our
attention. Called China a despotic state whose principle is fear. According to him
they’re obsessed with ritual. Spend their time bowing and scraping. Haven’t
caught up with the times.
Macartney. We’ll have to look into that,
George.
First Narrator. And his Lordship was the man
to do it.
Historian. In March 1793 the embassy arrived
in Batavia, in the Dutch East Indies.
Macartney. What a hellhole!
Staunton. Full of dysentery!
Tom. And pirates!
Historian. The embassy lost a few men but
pressed on, and arrived at Macao on June 20th with four ships.
Scene Two: Up the Coast to Tianjin
Historian. The British embassy is now, at long
last, off the coast of China. The Imperial government already knows about it, because the
East India Company had sent a letter telling them that His Majesty King George would be
sending an envoy.
Third Narrator. Thanks to our efficient postal
system we heard about this embassy within five days of their arrival off the south coast.
Fourth Narrator. We have to explain things, or
you won’t know what’s really going on. These red-haired barbarians from the
Great West Ocean keep wanting to send envoys. Fine. They can send who they like.
Third Narrator. But what a bother for us. Have
you ever seen anything as wild as a red-haired barbarian? Their talk sounds like dogs
barking!
Fourth Narrator. And they haven’t any
idea how to behave.
Third Narrator. And boy, do they smell weird.
Fourth Narrator. We heard from the governor of
Guangdong that this red-haired king was planning to send a mission to pay tribute on the
occasion of our emperor’s birthday.
Third Narrator. They missed our emperor’s
80th birthday by two years. Such ignorant people.
Fourth Narrator. Still, at least they
understand the need to transform themselves.
Third Narrator. Their leader has this strange
name. MA-GA-ER-NI. What a mouthful. Can you say it?
Fourth Narrator. Certainly. MA-GA-ER-NI (Stresses
each syllable).
Emperor. (Stage center, on throne, but
speaking from behind narrators) The British ruler appears to be sincere; therefore
his Tribute Mission may proceed up the coast. But since their contacts have been informal
and their education limited, we must be constantly informed about their progress. Our
officials must be ready to deal with them wherever they land.
Heshen. The local officials have been
instructed to keep us fully informed.
First Narrator. We fobbed the locals off with
some lists of gifts that made their eyes pop, then set off up the coast.
Staunton. I got off at some islands to look
around. Found that the farmers manure their fields with—can you believe
it?—human droppings.
Second Narrator. Oh my God!
First Narrator. The stench!
Staunton. Still, they’re pretty
industrious. But when we saw the bound feet on the women—oh dear, oh dear. What a
preposterous practice!
Macartney. Come on, George. Look what we do
with our women. It’s a sexual fetish, old boy.
Third Narrator. (To Fourth Narrator)
Can you beat these Europeans? Look at all the grease and powder on their hair.
Fourth Narrator. And all that ridiculous tight
white clothing.
Third Narrator. They look like ghosts and
demons!
Fourth Narrator. Maybe that’s what they
are.
Macartney. The important thing is, George,
they’ve got nothing to compare with our ships. Can we get some pilots to take us into
the Yellow Sea?
Staunton. I’ll see what I can do, Sir.
But don’t count on it. Their pilots are an ignorant, scurvy bunch. We may have to
navigate on our own.
Scene Three: The Forces Converge
Historian. The English embassy has made
unexpectedly swift progress. Any day now they will land off Tianjin. Their tribute gifts
have to be unloaded. The Imperial Chief Minister, Heshen, has appointed officials to take
care of this.
First Narrator. Now that we’re about to
land, His Lordship has to give the troops their marching orders.
Macartney. Gentlemen, you must conduct
yourselves with peculiar caution and mildness so as to enhance the renown of the English
name. If there is any misconduct, I shall consider it my duty to punish the
offender—and, if need be, let Chinese justice take its course.
First Narrator. Chinese justice? Better watch
out.
Third Narrator. While these ridiculous foreign
devils strut around, our Imperial Court is going to great care and expense to see that
they are properly treated.
Fourth Narrator. Our Sage Emperor himself is
supervising the plans.
Emperor. (To Heshen) Not too much ceremony,
not too little. Since the red-haired envoy is coming from afar, we must display our
kindness and instruct these people appropriately to assure their sincerity. We must also
find out what gifts they have sent. The envoy and his associates can be invited to a
banquet or two and receive some gifts from us. Then they should be sent home.
Heshen. Your servant has appointed officials
to supervise the task.
Emperor. Appoint that junior salt commissioner
Zhengrui as Imperial Legate to supervise the English and instruct them in etiquette. We
must ensure that they understand their place and are transformed by our virtue.
Zhengrui. What a dreadful assignment. These
English dogs are unbelievably arrogant. They can’t stop boasting about their
wonderful gifts! But how could I refuse to obey our Sage Ruler? It took hours to unload
their stuff and 35 junks to carry it. Now we’ve got to attend to their daily needs.
And I have to teach them basic manners. Oh, dear, oh, dear!
Third Narrator. We arranged for MA-GA-ER-NI
and his aides to meet with our Governor General. They were instructed to report to the
Emperor at his summer retreat in Rehe (Jehol).
Fourth Narrator. MA-GA-ER-NI seemed a bit
upset.
Third Narrator. Apparently he thought he would
be received in Beijing. What cheek!
Fourth Narrator. Our Governor General
overlooked their vulgar behavior. He sent them his visiting card, then we proceeded
upriver.
First Narrator. Yes, we’re sailing up
past all these hordes of people standing on the banks gawking at us.
Second Narrator. We’ve just learned that
the banners on their ships are calling this a tribute mission.
First Narrator. Our incredible gifts tribute!
His Lordship was ready to blow up.
Macartney. You can imagine my consternation.
Of course I kept our larger goals in sight.
Staunton. We pretended not to notice their
derogatory signs.
Second Narrator. But there was worse to come.
Zhengrui. (Approaching Macartney for first time,
with Chinese narrators beside him) It is our solemn duty to discuss with you the
ceremony of the three kneelings and nine prostrations. (Gets down on knees and
demonstrates how to do the kowtow)
Macartney. I cannot and will not represent His
Majesty in that manner.
Staunton. It’s quite out of the question.
Macartney. Quite so.
Zhengrui. This is a matter of Court etiquette
and ritual integrity. This is how we all greet our Sage Emperor. We are not treating you
any differently from ourselves.
Second Narrator. Their attitude is stiffening.
They keep saying it is essential for us to do it.
Zhengrui. (Turning around and speaking to Chinese
narrators) The English barbarians have no idea that they should dress up and
respectfully kneel and bow to the Emperor’s documents, his meals, every expression of
his authority. They don’t understand he’s the Son of Heaven and Supreme Ruler
over all subject peoples! It’s a privilege to kneel before him!
Third Narrator. What turtles’ eggs they
are.
Fourth Narrator. They can’t even eat with
chopsticks.
Zhengrui. I am trying to teach them as best I
can. I’ve reported to the Emperor that they are deeply ashamed of their loutish
behavior and are practicing the kneelings and prostrations—well, sort of.
Fourth Narrator. The Chief Minister said they
wouldn’t get an audience till they did it.
Third Narrator. Up to now MA-GA-ER-NI merely
takes off his hat. What a stiff!
Fourth Narrator. Maybe his knees don’t
bend. These far-off people have all kinds of handicaps.
Zhengrui. If he goes on like that, I’m in
big trouble. What on earth am I going to do? (Wrings his hands)
Historian. Chinese orderlies have unloaded all
the English goods from ships onto caravans and escorted them to the Northern Capital,
Beijing. The English are being treated with great kindness and entertained with numerous
banquets.
Third Narrator. Yup. It’s spectacular.
Fourth Narrator. People pressing all around,
just stupefied at the sight of all these foreign devils.
Third Narrator. You should’ve seen them
eating. What a hoot.
Fourth Narrator. We laughed till our sides
split.
Both Narrators. Ha-ha-ha-ha-ha.
First Narrator. Where the hell do all these
Chinese people come from? You can’t get away from them.
Second Narrator. No privacy. Have you ever had
100 people watch you swallow every bite?
Tom. (To Mr. Plum) Isn’t it fun eating
with chopsticks! Do you eat like that in Rome?
Mr. Plum. No, lad. In Rome we do as the Romans
do.
Macartney. Chopsticks are an invention of the devil.
Tom. Papa. Papa. When are we going to see the
Emperor?
Mr. Plum. Hush, boy. Your father’s busy
with his memoirs.
Staunton. (Writing in diary) Hmm . . . ah,
yes. We observed the agricultural practices, and the labor required of peasant women.
Notwithstanding their merit, the husbands arrogate an extraordinary dominion over them . .
. .
Macartney. And the mandarins are trying to do
the same with us, George. More of their foppish court ceremonial. They can’t seem to
get it that we have our proprieties, too. English dignity is at stake! They may rule the
land, but we rule the seas. I’ll have to write a letter.
Scene Four: Final Preparations
Historian. After the embassy arrived in
Beijing, it was time to unpack the gifts. The English technicians began the laborious task
of assembling the planetarium.
First Narrator. It took the poor devils
eighteen days.
Staunton. Since their notions of astronomy are
quite antiquated, we’re hoping that our scientific equipment will help to get them
up-to-date.
Second Narrator. Meanwhile His Lordship wrote
a letter.
Macartney. I informed the officials that I
would perform the kneeling ceremonies to their Emperor if a Chinese official of my
seniority did the same to a picture of His Majesty. That’ll cook their goose,
don’t you think?
Tom. It had to be translated from English to
Latin to Chinese to Court Chinese. I wrote out the characters, because nobody else dared
to. Mr. Plum thought it was pretty cock-eyed. Said we just didn’t understand what the
ceremonies were all about.
Mr. Plum. (Looking perturbed, and whispering)
Be careful, lad. Things are not looking too good. Deus vobiscum, per Christum Dominum
nostrum. (God be with us, through Christ our Father.)
Historian. Meanwhile, in Rehe, distrust is
growing.
Emperor. (To Heshen) The English envoy is vain
and pretentious. He is not to be trusted. Zhengrui has misinformed us. His ideas are a
muddle. He is contemptible and ridiculous.
Heshen. (Reassuring) Your servant has informed
the responsible officials that they are unworthy and odious. Should we proceed with this
business?
Emperor. Yes. Let the English delegates come,
then send them away, quickly.
(Brief pause)
Historian. It is ten days later. The Barbarian
mission has arrived at Rehe.
Zhengrui. MA-GA-ER-NI pretended to be
indisposed, so SI-TAN-TON presented their letters to our Chief Minister. More evidence of
their fickle behavior.
Heshen. (To Emperor) The English object to our
court ritual. It is said that their leg clothes are too tight to enable them to kneel down
and bow their heads.
Emperor. (Angry) The ignorant fools! Let them
kneel and bow once. Reduce their supplies, and degrade that idiot Zhengrui.
Zhengrui. (Aside) Of course. I get blamed for
everything. As if I started this mess! What’s a man to do with ignorant barbarians? (Shakes
his head)
Heshen. Your servant has learned that they
greet their king by kneeling on one knee and kissing his hand.
Emperor. (Startled) Kissing? How revolting.
Let them kneel on one knee. But no kissing! (Shudders)
Heshen. Their boorish behavior must not be
allowed to disrupt our ceremonies.
Emperor. Let it be recorded that they were
respectful but ignorant. Send them away as soon as the birthday ceremonies are completed.
Scene Five: The Climax
Second Narrator. It’s three o’clock
in the morning and pitch dark. And now we must leave for the Emperor’s court.
First Narrator. I’ve already tripped over
a bunch of bloody pigs and dogs. I got my breeches torn.
Second Narrator. Now we have to wait three
hours till the Emperor’s cortege arrives.
Tom. Oh, look! Here he comes! Everybody’s
kneeling and prostrating themselves. Mr. Plum! What are you doing?
Mr. Plum. Just do as you’re told, lad.
Kneel and bow your head a bit.
Tom. We knelt and bowed our heads a bit.
Second Narrator. The Emperor went in to his
tent. Then we approached.
Fourth Narrator. When MA-GA-ER-NI ascended the
platform to the throne and saw the Son of Heaven, his legs trembled so much that he fell
flat on his face.
Third Narrator. Clumsy oaf! Still, he
prostrated himself.
Fourth Narrator. That’s for sure.
It’s in our records. (As narrators report this scenario, Macartney approaches the
Emperor, kneels down and clumsily prostrates his head three times. Then he proffers a
jeweled box with the king’s letter inside it. An attendant steps forward and takes
the box. Then Macartney returns humbly to his place, never turning his back on the
Emperor.)
Third Narrator. Naturally we made sure he
didn’t talk directly to our Sage Emperor or hand Him anything in person.
Fourth Narrator. That would have been a breach
of protocol. It would have upset everything.
Tom. It was actually like this. Lord
Macartney, my father, Mr. Plum, and I went to the edge of the platform. Lord Macartney
climbed up, kneeled on one knee before the Emperor, presented His Majesty’s letter in
the jeweled box and some small presents, then came down. (As Tom speaks, Macartney,
Staunton, Mr. Li and Tom mimic this scenario.)
Tom. Then my papa and I go up and make the
ceremony.
Staunton. The Emperor invites the
Ambassador’s page up to his throne and desires him to speak Chinese. Then he takes
from his girdle a purse and presents it to him. Quite an honor for the lad, don’t you
think? (Tom and Emperor mimic this action.)
First Narrator. From what I hear, more likely
a little bit of you know what!
Second Narrator. Eighty-two years old, and
still a randy old geezer!
Macartney. George, do you see those
ambassadors from Pegu and the Kalmucks? Their appearance is not very splendid, is it?
Staunton. No, Sir. Strange company, if you ask
me.
First Narrator. A banquet followed for all the
high-ups. Then we were escorted back to our residence. And that was that.
Macartney. I was, to be sure, shown around the
Imperial domain.
Staunton. It appears, Sir, that the Emperor
already possesses many fine European artifacts.
Macartney. Yes. I fear, George, that the
Emperor may not think so much of our presents after all.
Staunton. And our impressions of his Court are
not too flattering, are they?
Macartney. Well, you have to admire the
organization and the numbers. But I think they’re distinctly frayed around the edges.
First Narrator. We encountered the Emperor one
more time, at an entertainment.
Second Narrator. Technically it was twice. At
the first, gifts were exchanged, the usual stuff. All pure formality.
First Narrator. Oh, yes. At the second we got
up as usual at 3:00, waited for hours with all the Court, then knelt as the Emperor went
by.
Second Narrator. Now it’s back to
Beijing. His Lordship looks pretty grim!
Scene Six. Departure
Historian. Back in Beijing Lord Macartney
attempted to explain to the Chief Minister the purposes of his mission. But the response,
while polite, was unenthusiastic.
Heshen. MA-GA-ER-NI has been assailing me with
his useless ideas. I had to find ways to divert his chatter.
Zhengrui. Excellent, excellent. Can we tell
him it’s time to leave?
Heshen. Yes. Since we have presented our
Imperial rescript, there is now nothing left for him to do but depart.
Emperor. I explained, as graciously as
possible, that it was nice of these English subjects to bring their tribute, but we
didn’t actually need any of it. As for their proposals, these were simply out of
order and could not be countenanced. Now we order them to return safely home.
Mr. Plum. The Emperor thanks you all for
coming and wishes you bon voyage.
First Narrator. That’s what he says! The
fact is, the condescending old dodo has really let us have it.
Tom. The Court missionaries toned down the
translation, so that his Lordship wouldn’t get too angry.
Macartney. So the matter is now settled.
Dammit. How frustrating. But we can’t give up.
First Narrator. (Aside, with hand to mouth)
Can’t we? We enter Beijing like paupers. We remain like prisoners. We quit like
vagrants. I say let’s go home.
Macartney. On the way south I will discuss our
concerns with the Imperial viceroys accompanying us. Some of them seem to take an
interest. Perhaps we may achieve something after all.
Mr. Plum. (To audience) I know better.
They’ll just humor the old boy. I’ve seen it all before.
Fourth Narrator. We must escort them by land
to Canton, making sure that none of them disobey our commands.
Zhengrui. The route will be lined with
military, to make sure they stay in line.
Third Narrator. Then they’ll set sail
from Canton and that’ll be that.
Fourth Narrator. Unless, of course, they
return with more tribute.
Zhengrui. Heaven forbid.
Afterwords
First Narrator. The news of our embassy’s
churlish treatment caused some inconvenience to his Lordship on our return to England.
Second Narrator. But after their accounts were
published, European people began to realize the problems of dealing with China. Praise
gave way to disparagement.
First Narrator. And anger. They couldn’t
go on treating our embassies like that. For one thing, their navy was a joke. We could
blow them sky high—and when the war came we did!
Staunton. But what was worse, they were way
behind the times and didn’t know it.
Second Narrator. The day would come when they
would find out.
Tom. How ironic that it came because of the
opium trade.
Fourth Narrator. (Musing) After they went to
war with us, the British foreigners got everything that MA-GA-ER-NI asked for, and more.
And for 150 years they kept it all.
Third Narrator. We had to be very patient.
Fourth Narrator. But we didn’t forget.
And now it’s a new era.
Third Narrator. No more foreigners to boss us
around.
Fourth Narrator. We’ve got the
world’s fastest growing economy,
Third Narrator. The world’s biggest army,
Fourth Narrator. The world’s best
cuisine,
Third Narrator. The smartest businessmen.
Fourth Narrator. And Hong Kong and Macau are
back in our hands.
Both Narrators. We get the last laugh!
Ha-ha-ha!
THE END
Data and some verbatim lines from the study by
Peyrefitte, with some adjustment to the analysis by Hevia. (For references, see study
notes.)
Note on pronunciation of Chinese names:
There are no foolproof rules for getting these names right, but it will help the play to
get them somewhat right. "Q" in the Chinese pinyin system is pronounced like a
very sibilant "ch." Thus, Qing becomes something like "tching," and
Qianlong becomes something like "tchienlung." "Zh" has the same sound
as English "J" (not French J), thus Zhengrui should be pronounced
something like "Jerngruey." Heshen is easier. Pronounce "He" as in
English "Per" or "Her" but without ‘r’ sound, and
"shen" as in "Attention!" Thus, "Heshen." Tones are
another matter. If you have a Chinese language teacher in your school, ask for help!
